柔性铰柔性杆机器人动力学建模、仿真和控制$^{\bf 1)}$

图1 柔性铰柔性杆机器人

Fig. 1 The robot with flexible joints and flexible links

柔性杆模型基于Euler-Bernoulli梁, 变形处于线弹性阶段. 模型中考虑了杆件拉压、弯曲变形和扭转变形. 柔性铰模型基于Spong的柔性关节简化模型, 将柔性铰看成线性扭转弹簧, 并考虑铰阻尼的存在. $\tau_{i}$为铰$i$的驱动力矩, $k_{i}$为铰$i$扭转刚度系数, $c_{i}$为铰$i$阻尼系数, $q_{i1}$为铰$i$驱动装置的角位移, $q_{i2}$为铰$i$传到杆件$i$的角位移. $q_{i2}-q_{i1}$为铰柔性引起的扭转变形.

1.2 柔性机器人的运动学描述

在建模过程中, 引入齐次坐标和齐次变换矩阵来描述杆件的位置和姿态. 为清楚表示各坐标系之间的转换关系, 在$i$杆的近端和远端各建立两个正交坐标系: 坐标系($X_{b}Y_{b}Z_{b})_{i}$固定在$i$杆的近端, 沿$X_{b}$沿杆件$i$未变形时的中性轴; 坐标系($X_{d}Y_{d}Z_{d})_{i}$固定在$i$杆的远端, 在杆$i$未变形时, ($X_{d}Y_{d}Z_{d})_{i}$看作是($X_{b}Y_{b}Z_{b})_{i}$沿杆件$i$的轴线方向平移杆件$i$的长度$L_{i}$而成; 坐标系($H_{x}H_{y}H_{z})_{i}$固定在$i$杆件的远端, $z$轴沿着关节的转轴; 坐标系($H_{x}H_{y}H_{z})_{i}'$固定在杆件$i$的近端, 铰$i$未动时, ($H_{x}H_{y}H_{z})_{i}'$与($H_{x}H_{y}H_{z})_{i-1}$重合. 可见, 坐标系($X_{d}Y_{d}Z_{d})_{i}$与坐标系($H_{x}H_{y}H_{z})_{i}$之间的4$\times$4齐次变换矩阵$dH_{i}$是一个常数阵, 坐标系($H_{x}H_{y}H_{z})_{i}$与($X_{b}Y_{b}Z_{b})_{i}$之间的变换矩阵$Hb_{i}$也是一个常数阵, ($H_{x}H_{y}H_{z})_{i}'$与($H_{x}H_{y}H_{z})_{i-1}$之间的变换矩阵$HH_{i}^{i-1}$只是铰$i$铰变量$q_{i2}$的函数.

定义铰$i$的变换矩阵为$A_{i}$, 即从坐标系 $(X_{d}$ $Y_{d}$ $Z_{d})_{i-1}$到坐标系$(X_{b}$ $Y_{b}$ $Z_{b})_{i}$的变换矩阵, 则

(1)${A}_i ={dH}_{i-1} {HH}_i^{i-1} {Hb}_i$

定义$E_{i}$是杆件$i$的变形变换矩阵, 即从坐标系($X_{b}Y_{b}Z_{b})_{i}$到杆件$i$变形后的坐标系($X_{d}Y_{d}Z_{d})_{i}$的变换矩阵. 由于杆件$i$的变形是基于小变形假设, 故$E_{i}$可近似表达为

(2)$E_i =H_i +\sum\limits_{j=1}^{N_i } {\delta _{ij} } {\varPi}_{ij}$

式中

(3)${H}_i =\left( {{\begin{array}{c@{\quad }c@{\quad }c@{\quad }c} 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ {L_i } & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\ \end{array} }} \right)$

(4)$ {\varPi }_{ij} =\left( {{\begin{array}{*{20}c} 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ {x_{ij} } & 0 & {-\theta _{zij} } & {\theta _{yij} } \\ {y_{ij} } & {\theta _{yij} } & 0 & {-\theta _{xij} } \\ {z_{ij} } & {-\theta _{yij} } & {\theta _{xij} } & 0 \\ \end{array} }} \right)$

其中, $x_{ij}$, $y_{ij}$, $z_{ij}$分别是杆件$i$的第$j$变形线位移模态在坐标系($X_{b}Y_{b}Z_{b})_{i}$的三轴上的分量; $\theta _{xij}$, $\theta_{yij}$, $\theta_{zij}$分别是杆件$i$的第$j$变形角位移模态在坐标系($X_{b}Y_{b}Z_{b})_{i}$的三轴上的分量; $\delta_{ij}$是杆件$i$的第$j$个模态坐标; $N_{i}$是杆件$i$的模态数.

令$W_{i}$是基座坐标系($X_{b}Y_{b}Z_{b})_{0}$到($X_{b}Y_{b}Z_{b})_{i}$之间的齐次变换矩阵, 则

(5)${W}_i ={W}_{i-1} {E}_{i-1} {A}_i ={\mathord{\buildrel{\lower3pt\scriptscriptstyle\frown}\over{W}}}_{i-1} {A}_i$

其中${\mathord{\buildrel{\lower3pt\hbox{$\scriptscriptstyle\frown$}}\over {W}}}_{i-1}$是基座坐标系($X_{b}Y_{b}Z_{b})_{0}$到杆件$i-1$的远端坐标系($X_{b}Y_{b}Z_{b})_{i-1}$的齐次变换矩阵.

采用假设模态法描述杆件的变形, 考虑由杆件横向变形引起的纵向耦合变形. 杆$i$上某点$P$($\eta $, 0, 0)变形后在连体坐标系中的齐次坐标$^{i}h_{i}$为

(6)${\ }^i{h}_i (\eta )=\left[ {{\begin{array}{*{20}c} 1 \\ \eta \\ 0 \\ 0 \\ \end{array} }} \right]+\sum\limits_{j=1}^{N_i } {\delta _{ij} } \left[ {{\begin{array}{*{20}c} 0 \\ {x_{ij} (\eta )} \\ {y_{ij} (\eta )} \\ {z_{ij} (\eta )} \\ \end{array} }} \right]-\frac{1}{2}\sum\limits_{j=1}^{N_i } {\sum\limits_{k=1}^{N_i } {\delta _{ij} } } \delta _{jk} \left[ {{\begin{array}{*{20}c} 0 \\ {x_{ijk} (\eta )} \\ 0 \\ 0 \\ \end{array} }} \right] $

式中, $x_{ijk}$($\eta $)是采用非线性应变场产生的高阶耦合项, 与传统零次动力学模型不同, 考虑了该项的高次刚柔耦合动力学

模型能够捕捉到大范围运动与变形的相互影响, 所得结果更加精确. $x_{ijk}(\eta $)可表示为

(7)$x_{ijk} (\eta )=\int_{0}^\eta \left( {\frac{\partial y_{ij} (\xi )}{\partial \xi }\cdot \frac{\partial y_{ik} (\xi )}{\partial \xi }+\frac{\partial z_{ij} (\xi )}{\partial \xi }\cdot \frac{\partial z_{ik} (\xi )}{\partial \xi }} \right) {\rm d}\xi\\ $

该点在基座坐标系中的齐次坐标$h_{i}$可以表示为

(8)${h}_i ={W}_i {\ }^i{h}_i$

将$h_{i}$对时间求导, 可以得到该点的速度为

(9)${\dot{{h}}}_i ={\dot{{W}}}{\ }^i{h}_i +{W}{\ }^i{\dot{{h}}}_i$

1.3 系统的动能和势能

系统的动能包括杆的动能和铰的动能. 杆$i$的动能可表示为

(10)$K_i^b =\frac12\int_{0}^{L_i } {\mu _i } (\eta ){\rm Tr}(\dot{h}_i \dot{h}_i^{\rm T} ){\rm d}\eta+\frac12\int_{0}^{L_i} {J_{xi} } (\eta )\left( {\frac{\partial \theta _{xi} (\eta ,t)}{\partial t}} \right){\rm d}\eta $

上式中, $L_{i}$为杆$i$长度, $\mu _{i}$为柔性杆单位长度质量, Tr($\cdot$)表示对括号中的矩阵求迹, $J_{xi}$为杆$i$绕$x_{i}$轴单位长度转动惯量, $\theta_{xi}$为杆$i$绕$x_{i}$轴扭转角. 式(10)中, 右边的第一项为杆件大范围运动、纵向拉压变形运动和横向弯曲变形运动引起的动能, 第二项为杆件扭转变形运动引起的动能. 其中, $\theta _{xi}$可表示为

(11)$\theta _{xi} =\sum\limits_{j=1}^{N_i } {\delta _{ij} } \theta _{xij}$

柔性铰$i$的动能分为平动动能和转动动能. 对于平动动能,把铰$i$看作杆$i$靠近铰$i$端的集中质量计入杆的动能. 而柔性铰$i$的转动动能可表示为

(12)$K_i^r =\frac{1}{2}J_{ri} \dot{{\varphi }}_i^2$

式中, $J_{ri}$为铰$i$转动惯量, $\varphi_{i}$是转子的角位移, 经过齿轮变速后输出角位移$q_{i1}$到柔性铰上, 因此$q_{i1}=\varphi _{i}/n_{i}$, 其中$n_{i}$为齿轮传动比. 于是式(12)可表示为

(13)$K_i^r =\frac{1}{2}n_i^2 J_{ri} \dot{{q}}_{i1}^2$

综上, 系统的总动能为

(14)$K=\sum\limits_{i=1}^n {(K_i^b +K_i^r )}$

系统的势能包括柔性杆和柔性铰的弹性变形势能以及它们的重力势能. 柔性杆$i$的弹性势能包括拉压变形势能、弯曲变形势能、扭转变形势能

(15)$ V_i^b =\frac{1}{2}\int_0^{L_i} \left\{ E_i \left[ {A_{xi} \left( {\frac{\partial x_i }{\partial \eta }} \right)^2+I_{yi} \left( {\frac{\partial \theta _{yi} }{\partial \eta }} \right)^2+I_{zi} \left( {\frac{\partial \theta _{zi} }{\partial \eta }} \right)^2} \right] \right. +\left. G_i I_{xi} \left( {\frac{\partial \theta _{xi} }{\partial \eta }} \right)^2 \right\} {\rm d}\eta $

其中, $E_{i}$是杆$i$的杨氏模量, $G_{i}$是杆$i$的剪切模量, $A_{xi}$是杆$i$的横截面积, $I_{xi}$是杆$i$横截面关于中性轴的极面积惯性矩, $I_{yi}$和$I_{zi}$是杆$i$横截面关于$y_{i}$和$z_{i}$轴的面积惯性矩, $\theta_{yi}$和$\theta_{zi}$为杆$i$绕$y_{i}$和$z_{i}$轴转角. $\theta_{xi}$如式(11)所示, $\theta_{yi}$, $\theta_{zi}$可表示为

(16)$\theta _{yi} =\sum\limits_{j=1}^{N_i } {\delta _{ij} } \theta _{yij}$

(17)$\theta _{zi} =\sum\limits_{j=1}^{N_i } {\delta _{ij} } \theta _{zij}$

$x_{i}$为杆件$i$的拉压变形, 可表示为

(18)$x_i =\sum\limits_{j=1}^{N_i } {\delta _{ij} } x_{ij}$

柔性铰$i$的弹性势能为

(19)$V_i^r =\frac{1}{2}k_i (q_{i2} -q_{i1} )^2$

系统的弹性势能为

(20)$V_{\rm e} =\sum\limits_{i=1}^n {\left( {V_i^b +V_i^r } \right)}$

系统的重力势能为

(21)$V_{\rm g} =-{g}^{\rm T}\sum\limits_{i=1}^n {{W}_i {r}_i }$

其中, $g$为重力加速度阵, $r_{i}$为杆$i$质心位置矩阵, 其具体形式见参考文献^[23]. 于是系统的总势能为

(22)$V=V_{\rm e} +V_{\rm g}$

1.4 系统的动力学方程

取广义坐标

(23)$ {q}=[q_{11} q_{12} \delta _{11} \delta _{12} \cdots \delta _{1N_1 } \cdots q_{j1} q_{j2} \delta _{j1} \delta _{j2} \cdots \delta _{jN_j }\cdots q_{n1} q_{n2} \delta _{n1} \delta _{n2} \cdots \delta _{nN_n } ]^{\rm T} $

将系统的动能(14)和势能(22)代入到第二类拉格朗日方程

(24)$ \frac{\rm d}{{\rm d}t}\left( {\frac{\partial K}{\partial \dot{{q}}}} \right)-\frac{\partial K}{\partial q}+\frac{\partial V}{\partial q}=F_q $

得到系统的动力学方程组为

(25)$n_j^2 J_{rj} \ddot{{q}}_{j1} =-k_i (q_{j1} -q_{j2} )+\tau _j\underline{\underline {-c_j (\dot{{q}}_{j1} -\dot{{q}}_{j2} )}}$

(26)$ 2\sum\limits_{i=j}^n {\rm Tr}\{ \frac{\partial {W}_i }{\partial q_{j2} }[\sum\limits_{k=1}^{N_i} {H}_{ik} {W}_i^{\rm T} \ddot{\delta}_{ik} +\sum\limits_{k=1}^{N_i} \sum\limits_{l=1}^{N_i} {L}_{ikl} {W}_i^{\rm T} \dot{\delta}_{ik} \dot{\delta}_{il}+ \\ \qquad 2\sum\limits_{k=1}^{N_i} {H}_{ik} \dot{W}_i^{\rm T} \dot{\delta}_{ik} +{B}_{3i} \ddot{W}_i^{\rm T}]\} ={g}^{\rm T}\sum\limits_{i=j}^n \frac{\partial {W}_i}{\partial q_{j2} }{r}_i +\\ \qquad k_j (q_{j1} -q_{j2} )\underline{\underline {+c_j (\dot{{q}}_{j1} -\dot{{q}}_{j2} )}}$

(27)$2\sum\limits_{i=j+1}^n {\rm Tr}\{ \frac{\partial {W}_i }{\partial \delta _{jf} }[\sum\limits_{k=1}^{N_i} {H}_{ik} {W}_i^{\rm T} \ddot{\delta}_{ik} +\sum\limits_{k=1}^{N_i} \sum\limits_{l=1}^{N_i} {L}_{ikl} {W}_i^{\rm T} \dot{\delta }_{ik} \dot{\delta}_{il} +\\\qquad 2\sum\limits_{k=1}^{N_i} {H}_{ik} \dot{{W}}_i^{\rm T} \dot{\delta}_{ik} +{B}_{3i} \ddot{W}_i^{\rm T}] \} +\\ \qquad2{\rm Tr}\{[ \ddot{W}_j {H}_{jf} +\sum\limits_{k=1}^{N_j} {W}_j {N}_{jfk} \ddot{\delta }_{jk} +\\ \qquad\sum\limits_{k=1}^{N_j} \sum\limits_{l=}^{N_j} {W}_j {P}_{jfkl} \dot{\delta}_{jk} \dot{\delta}_{jl} +2\sum\limits_{k=1}^{N_j} \dot{W}_j {N}_{jfk} \dot{\delta }_{jk}]{W}_j^{\rm T}\} +\\ \qquad2\sum\limits_{k=1}^{N_j} \ddot{\delta}_{jk} T_{jfk}={g}^{\rm T}\sum\limits_{i=j+1}^n \Bigg( \frac{\partial {W}_i}{\partial \delta _{jf} }{r}_i \Bigg) +\\ \qquad {g}^{\rm T}{W}_j \left( \varepsilon_{jf} -\sum\limits_{k=1}^{N_j} \delta _{jk} {\kappa}_{jfk}\right)-\sum\limits_{k=1}^{N_j} \delta _{jk} K_{jfk}$

以上得到的方程为考虑铰阻尼的柔性杆柔性铰机器人刚柔耦合动力学方程, 其中的相关变量可以参看文献^{[6-7, 17, 23]}. 双下划线部分为考虑铰阻尼时产生项, 该项会使系统的动力学响应衰减. 以上方程最终可整理成如下矩阵形式

(28)$J\ddot{q}={R}$

其中, $J$为广义质量矩阵, $R$为广义力矩阵.

2 柔性铰柔性杆机器人的动力学仿真

2.1 验证算例

使用文献^[17]中由两个柔性杆和两个柔性铰组成的空间机器人模型, 如图2所示. 杆件1与杆件2之间的间距为$d=0.475$ m, 由于此间距的存在, 杆件1会发生扭转变形. 考虑铰质量产生的项为$n_{i}^{2}J_{ri}=5$ kg$\cdot $m$^{2}$. 杆件1初始角度为$\pi$/4, 系统在重力作用下运动. 取与文献^[17]中相同的模型参数, 如表1所示.

图2

图2 柔性二连杆机器人

Fig. 2 The flexible robot with two joints and two links

表 1 柔性机器人杆件参数

Table 1 The parameters of the flexible robot

新窗口打开| 下载CSV

将本文不考虑铰阻尼时(即双下划线项为零时)杆1的扭转变形与参考文献^[17]中杆1的扭转变形进行对比, 如图3所示. 本文结果与文献^[17]中结果一致, 验证了本文建模和程序的正确性.

图3

图3 结果对比

Fig. 3 The comparison of results from the present model with those from Ref.^[17]

2.2 柔性单铰单杆机器人动力学仿真

柔性单铰单杆机器人模型如图4所示. 柔性杆长度$L=1.8$ m, 杆密度$\rho =2.766\times 10^{3}$ kg/m$^{3}$, 杆的横截面积$S=2.5\times 10^{-4}$ m$^{2}$, 杆截面惯性矩$I=1.3021\times10^{-10}$ m$^{4}$, 杆的弹性模量$E=6.9\times10^{10}$ N/m$^{2}$, 驱动转子齿轮的传动比$n_{i}=10$, 驱动转子的转动惯量$J_{r}=7.0\times 10^{-3}$ kg$\cdot $m$^{2}$. $q_{1}$为驱动转子传到铰上的角位移, $q_{2}$为铰传到杆件的角位移. 驱动力矩为$\tau $, 铰的刚度系数为$k$, 铰的阻尼系数为$c$. 由于铰柔性的存在, 铰存在扭转变形, 驱动转子上的驱动转角$q_{1}$并不等于杆件的实际转角$q_{2}$.

图4

图4 柔性单铰单杆模型

Fig. 4 The flexible robot with single joint and single link

输入的驱动力矩为

(29)$ \tau (t)=\left\{\begin{array}{l@{\quad }l} \sin(\pi t), & 0\leqslant t\leqslant 2\\ 0, & t>2\\ \end{array}\right. $

该驱动力矩的大小为一个周期的正弦函数, 故对于刚性铰刚性杆机器人, 在所给力矩作用下, 机器人从静止开始转动, 先加速后减速最终回到静止状态.

2.2.1 铰刚度对机器人动力学响应的影响

为了探究铰刚度对柔性机器人动力学响应的影响, 对不考虑铰阻尼时不同铰刚度的情况进行仿真分析. 图5为不同铰刚度时铰的驱动转角. 图6为不同铰刚度时铰的实际转角. 图7为不同铰刚度时驱动转角与实际转角的差值.

图5

图5 铰的驱动转角

Fig. 5 The driving angular displacements of the joint

图6

图6 铰的实际转角

Fig. 6 The actual angular displacements of the joint

图7

图7 驱动转角与实际转角的差

Fig. 7 The difference between the driving angles and the actuating angles

在刚性铰情况下驱动转角$q_{1}$和实际转角$q_{2}$相等, 而在柔性铰情况下, 铰存在扭转变形, 驱动转角$q_{1}$和实际转角$q_{2}$不相等. 铰的刚度越大, 驱动转角$q_{1}$和实际转角$q_{2}$越接近. 随着铰刚度的增大, 驱动转角$q_{1}$和实际转角$q_{2}$的振动幅值变小, 振动频率变大. 故可调节铰的刚度系数的大小来实现柔性机器人的减震和控制.

2.2.2 铰阻尼对机器人动力学响应的影响

为了探究铰阻尼对柔性机器人动力学响应的影响, 对相同铰刚度时不同铰阻尼的系统进行仿真分析. 将柔性铰的刚度取$k=50$ N$\cdot$m/rad. 图8为不同铰阻尼时铰的驱动转角. 图9为不同铰阻尼时铰的实际转角. 图10为不同铰阻尼时铰驱动转角与实际转角的差值.

图8

图8 铰的驱动转角

Fig. 8 The driving angles of joint

图9

图9 铰的实际转角

Fig. 9 The actuating angles of joint

图10

图10 驱动转角与实际转角的差

Fig. 10 The difference between the driving angles and the actuating angles

不考虑铰阻尼时, 驱动转角$q_{1}$、实际转角$q_{2}$、会一直振动下去. 铰阻尼的存在, 会使驱动转角$q_{1}$、实际转角$q_{2}$的振动衰减. 且铰阻尼越大, 驱动转角$q_{1}$、实际转角$q_{2}$衰减越快. 故可调节铰阻尼系数的大小来实现柔性机器人的减振和控制.

3 铰柔性对机器人动力学控制的影响

机器人控制属于动力学逆问题, 即已知系统轨迹对应的位移、速度和加速度求解所需关节力或力矩. 在系统动力学方程中, 广义力可分为与控制有关的广义力和包含了重力、离心力等与控制无关的其他部分的广义力. 其中, 控制广义力作为控制变量, 对机器人运动实施跟踪控制. 这里, 控制广义力可以是作动器驱动力、阻尼力、弹簧力或者它们的线性组合. 为求解此控制变量, 首先需要建立系统无控制时的动力学方程, 通过在此动力学方程中添加机器人末端运动所需要的约束方程, 建立机器人系统带有约束方程的动力学微分代数方程. 其次, 按照相关控制要求, 释放一定数量的控制变量, 在此情况下求解微分代数形式的动力学方程, 获得满足运动需求的系统运动参数. 最后由求解得到的运动参数, 通过逆动力学求解得到所需要的控制变量, 以此控制变量为前馈输入, 再通过反馈控制方法(如PID方法)施加到系统上, 便可使系统完成指定的运动.

以图11所示机械臂为例, 系统由3根刚性杆和3个转动铰组成. 系统参数为: $L_{i}=7.11$ m, $\rho _{i}S_{i}=44.287$ kg/m, $n_{i}^{2}J_{ri}=5$ kg$\cdot$m$^{2}$, $i=1$, 2, 3. 使三连杆末端执行器做如下圆周运动

(30)$ {r}=\left[ {{\begin{array}{*{20}c} x \\ y \\ \end{array} }} \right]=\left[ {{\begin{array}{*{20}c} {x_0 +r\cos (\omega t+\beta )} \\ {y_0 +r\sin (\omega t+\beta )} \\ \end{array} }} \right] $

式中$r=5$ m, $\omega =0.314$ rad/s, $\beta =-\pi /2$.

图11

图11 三连杆机械臂

Fig. 11 Three-link robot

在刚性铰情况下, 经过逆动力学求解得到机械臂3个铰上所需施加的驱动力矩如图12所示, 此刚性铰系统的运动位形如图13所示.

图12

图12 关节力矩

Fig. 12 The joint-torques

图13

图13 三连杆机械臂的位形

Fig. 13 The configuration of the 3-link system

将图12中刚性铰情况下求得的驱动力矩施加到柔性铰系统时, 得到柔性铰系统末端执行器的运动轨迹如图14所示. 此时, 柔性铰的刚度取$k_1=k_2=k_3=1330$ N$\cdot$m/rad.

图14

图14 末端执行器运动轨迹

Fig. 14 The movement of end-effector

由图14可见, 杆末端轨迹为不规则运动, 与指定圆周运动差别巨大. 因此在机器人动力学控制时, 铰的柔性不可忽略, 需要对柔性铰系统进行研究. 对柔性铰系统进行动力学逆问题求解得到的3个铰上所需施加的驱动力矩如图15所示.

图15

图15 关节力矩

Fig. 15 The joint-torques

由图12和图15可见, 完成相同指定运动, 柔性铰情况下所需的驱动力矩小于刚性铰情况下所需的驱动力矩. 将图15力矩施加在柔性铰系统上, 得到柔性铰的三连杆机械臂运动的位形与图13一样.

4 结论

本文对考虑铰阻尼的柔性铰柔性杆机器人进行动力学建模, 推导出包含杆扭转变形、铰质量效应的刚柔耦合动力学方程. 并对两个具体模型进行仿真, 得到以下结论:

(1) 随着柔性铰刚度的增大, 柔性铰柔性杆机器人的动力学响应幅值减小.

(2) 铰阻尼的存在, 会使系统的振动衰减. 随着柔性铰阻尼的增大, 柔性铰柔性杆机器人的动力学响应衰减变快.

(3) 在机器人动力学控制时, 铰的柔性不可忽略.

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